Counter-Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Counter-Terrorism - Essay Example Unlawful enemy combatant status can also be given to anyone attacking the US in a war, such as insurgents, that do not belong to an organized military. They can be detained without charges for the duration of the conflict. Lawful combatants, members of a military, are treated as POWs. The Supreme Court has consistently upheld that "the President has unquestioned authority to detain unlawful enemy combatants, including those who are U.S. citizens, during wartime (Haynes, 2002). Without regards to the suspect's status or charges, torture should never be a matter of policy. Torture is an ethical decision, not a matter of procedure. If an agent is faced with a situation in which they believe torture would be productive, then they should take whatever action is necessary, report it, be prepared to justify it, and be prepared to suffer the consequences. When torture becomes policy, the government ends up debating the legalities of their actions, rather than their effectiveness. Our laws, traditions, and sense of justice can never make torture, even perceived torture, acceptable. 3.) The doctrine of a 'Just War' places limitations and restrictions on the motivations for initiating war, the goals of war, and the engagement of war. Advocates of the just war theory contend that a war is justified if it is formally declared, has a just and defensive cause, has the limited objective of peace, uses proportionate force, is a last resort, and targets only military targets (Anderson, 2003). These guidelines are rather straightforward in a traditional border war or against an aggressive occupation. However, the globalization of terrorism adds a new level of complexity to the... The doctrine of a 'Just War' places limitations and restrictions on the motivations for initiating war, the goals of war, and the engagement of war. Advocates of the just war theory contend that a war is justified if it is formally declared, has a just and defensive cause, has the limited objective of peace, uses proportionate force, is a last resort, and targets only military targets. These guidelines are rather straightforward in a traditional border war or against an aggressive occupation. However, the globalization of terrorism adds a new level of complexity to the meaning of a 'just war'. The war on terror and the Bush Doctrine of pre-emptive action were justified using the just war standards. It was a declared war, and pre-emption was considered a defensive action against future aggression. Its objective is peace, and has no goal of territory or wealth. In addition, it is a last resort without the alternatives of negotiation or diplomacy. However, the definition of military tar get has changed in the modern world. Through one lens, the terrorists are radicalized civilians with a political and social agenda. However, their funding, organization, training, and commitment can be defined as pari-military.

Organisational Behaviours and HRM Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organisational Behaviours and HRM - Coursework Example rce management and staff management may differ in so many ways depending on the scope, nature of the roles and even the services with human resource management being broader in perspective in both compared to staff management that is narrower in perspective. They too have similarities. The similarities can be summarized in terms of; Payroll & Associated Tasks, new staff recruitment procedures, the documentation processes, and models. In terms of models, both focus on the significance of integrating personnel and human resource management techniques with organizational objectives (Armstrong, 2006) so that both can aim to achieve a common overall objective. The organizational behavior concept and human processes are quite basic in relationship. Organizational behavior concept manifest themselves as some regulations or guidelines that define how employees in a given organization should conduct themselves when they want to engage themselves within certain activities like politics, examples include; organization culture, politics, and ethics. Human resource management, on the other hand, is concerned with implementing the said concepts by doing whatever is necessary to develop strategies of setting rules for the concerned employees. Example, under the organization concept of organization culture, human resource will be concerned with acting as an amplifier of the organization culture using any communication means like employee orientation to help him/her understand the said culture. The same is true for other concepts. The primary responsibility of a human resource manager is to ensure that human resources are utilized and managed as efficiently and effectively as possible (Saiyadain, 1999). Particularly, he/she does; recruitment and selection as well as developing the workplace as required by the organization. He also sees through that all employees receive the required training that is relevant to their job. Others are; motivating employees, ensuring a balance

Land Pollution Essay Example for Free

Land Pollution Essay Causes of Land Pollution 1. Degenerative Actions Degenerative Actions encompass a lot of human actions, including deforestation, overuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, desertification, mining, inefficient and / or inadequate waste treatment, landfill, litter, etc. 2. Misuse of Land Misuse of Land mainly refers to felling of trees to clear land for agriculture, as well as processes like desertification and land conversion. Desertification is when anthropogenic effects of human development or other actions convert a piece of (essentially) fertile land into desert-land or dry land. Land once converted to desert-land can never be reclaimed by any amount of corrective measures. This is also a serious issue because t does not only affect the land, but also the overall biodiversity of a place, especially when land is cleared for agriculture. A lot of indigenous flora and fauna is lost in the process. 3. Soil Pollution Soil Pollution is when the top-most soil layer of land is destroyed or polluted. Soil pollution is again another cause of land pollution that affects not only the land, but also a lot of other things such as forest cover of a region, productivity of land in terms of agriculture, grazing etc. Soil pollution is also caused by wrong agricultural practices, such as overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This causes non-biodegradable chemicals to enter and accumulate in the food-chain a process often referred to as biomagnification of a pollutant. 4. Land Conversion Land Conversion is the process whereby a piece of land is converted from its indigenous form to a form used for either agriculture or infrastructure. Land conversion is especially a growing problem that we possibly do not have a good or a good enough solution for. The best way to avoid land conversion is to make efficient use of the available land. Using a piece of land to its maximum potential is the key to eliminate many of the causes of land pollution. Effects of Land Pollution 1. Effects on Climate Land pollution can affect the general environment of the Earth. Land pollutions leads to loss in the forest cover of Earth. This is in turn going to affect the amount of rain. Less rains mean lesser vegetation. The effect of all different kinds of pollution will eventually lead to problems like acid rains, greenhouse effect, global warming. All of these problems have already initiated and need to be curbed before the situation runs out of control. 2. Extinction of Species One of the major causes of concern is the extinction of species. Species are pushed towards endangerment and extinction primarily by two processes. Habitat fragmentation is the fragmentation of the natural habitat of an organism; cause primarily by urban sprawl. Habitat destruction, on the other hand, is when land clearing adversely affects animals special such that their natural habitat is lost. Both the actions can cause some species to go extinct and others to become invasive. 3. Biomagnification Biomagnification is the process in which certain non-biodegradable substances go on accumulating in the food-chain (in one or more species). The most common example is of methylmercury in fish and mercury in eagles. Not only does biomagnification put the particular species at risk, it puts all the species above and below it at risk, and ultimately affects the food pyramid. 4. Effects on Biodiversity Species extinction and biomagnification is going to overthrow the balance of nature very significantly. The main reason for this is disturbance created in the food chain. To give you a very simple example on account of biomagnification of mercury in eagles, they might go extinct in the subsequent years. However, we know eagles prey on snakes. Less (or no) eagles will then result in more number of snakes! Ways to Reduce Land Pollution 1. Reduce toxic materials. Waste materials that are disposed of should have minimal toxic materials. This can be done by treating the waste materials with various chemicals to make them less toxic. Once the waste is treated, it can be disposed of using responsible methods. Harmful chemicals can also be replaced with less toxic, biodegradable materials. 2. Recycle waste materials. As explained by the Stanford Recycling Center, each American throws away 7 1/2 lbs. of garbage. Garbage requires landfills, which takes up large amounts of land. 3. Buy organics products, especially organic cleaners, pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers. The advantage of using organic products is that they are biodegradable and friendly to the environment. 4. Avoid littering. Excessive littering is one of most common reasons for land pollution. 5. Take initiative to inform others about the harmful effects of littering. Organic wastes must be disposed off in areas that are far from human or animal habitation. Waste like plastic, metals, glass and paper must be recycled and reused. 6. Improve fertility of the land by reforesting. Soils in forested lands are far more fertile than soil without trees, suggesting that trees have the ability to fertilize land.

Google Drive: Functions, Security and Applications

Google Drive: Functions, Security and Applications Table of Contents (Jump to) Introduction What is Google Drive and its function? How to start with Google Drive? How secure is Google Drive? How do people use Google Drive? What is the maximum upload limit of Google Drive and supported files? What is Google Drive’s storage plan pricing? What are Google Drive’s compatible Operating Systems? Conclusion References Introduction In addition to the development velocity of modern technology, the volume of information completing by or ingested by individuals all over the world maintains growing quickly. The storage units seem to incapable for holding increasing data quantity. In servicing, add-on and again-up of data are important just in case of automobile accident. To meet the requirements stated earlier, the cloud computing is produced especially cloud storing which have turn into a needed info storage for all fairly recently. There are 4 competitive large cloud storages from the IT sector Google Drive, SkyDive and iCloud Dropbox. With the advancement of the information technology the development of app has significantly elevated. The brand new age of online technologies have triggered need for the World Wide Web app in people’s everyday life. In this particular document we shall make an effort to assess among the many programs developed to make people’s existence less difficult. We have now s elected Google drive as our most fascinated cloud app and we are going to publish a comprehensive report about it. What is Google Drive and its function? Google Drive is really a central location where you may keep your documents. You have access to Google Drive from the desktop, the web or maybe the Google Drive app. Transform data online, on your computer system, or in your mobile device and it also updates on every gadget in which you have installed Google Drive. So should you use Google Docs, this application will let you gain access to your Google doc at anyplace and at any time. Google Drive is greatly used to exchange each sort of files and folders between individuals. Google Drive is really an Online-dependent document web hosting support run by Google, Inc. that utilizes networked storage space to permit users to hold and share folders and files with others throughout the World Wide Web making use of document synchronization. Google Drive is definitely the easiest, most classy document synchronization instrument actually utilized. The idea behind Google Drive would provide you with access to your data files no matter what per sonal computer or system you are using. The service merchants records with solid encryption on multiple hosts and lets you get at your records quickly and easily, and for the most part elegantly from practically any World Wide Web-empowered system. We begin by quickly describing the application and its features. How to start with Google Drive? What started off as just a few valuable on the web business office resources named Google Docs, has transformed into Google Drive, a workplace package with cloud storage. You get a small amount of everything with these services, together with a word processor chip, spreadsheet application, and display tradesman, plus 15GB of totally free storage area. You can enter Google Drive if you already have a Google account. You just need to head over to drive.google.com and start the service. You will get 15GB of storage space for everything you upload to Drive, such as photos, papers and videos, Photoshop files and a lot more. You will need to share that 15GB with your Gmail account, photographs you upload to Google+ , as well as any files you generate in Google Drive. While you can access any documents in the Google Drive site, you may also acquire the Drive desktop app for your computer to deal with your records through your laptop or computer. It is possible to organize all your files from the personal computer app, and theyll sync with the cloud to therefore you can have them with you all the time on all your devices. Chromium is a Web-based operating system which Drive is built into it, when you have a Chrome book, Google Drive is the best cloud storage choice. Like other cloud safe-keeping professional services, Google Drive has applications for iOS and Android, so you can control your files from the phone too. What we like most about Google Drive is that you can drag and drop files into the Drive Web site and theyll be uploaded automatically. You can also preview attachments from Gmail in Google Drive, and save those files to your cloud. Google Drive has the benefit of a built-in place of work suite, where you can modify documents, spreadsheets, and reports, even though you created the papers in an additional application. This service will also support other third-party apps than can edit and modify the documents. What we like about Google Drive is that you could drag and decrease records to the Drive Web site and theyll be submitted instantly. You can also review devices from Gmail in Google Drive, and preserve these records to the cloud. How secure is Google Drive? Google Drive is amongst the most extensive cloud-safe-keeping services, but between your National Security Agency (NSA) and Googles own overreaching relation to service, your data files might be available for being snooped from both organizations. The NSA asserts that its PRISM system focuses on only people of foreign nations and Not American inhabitants. In case the NSA at any time made a decision that it would be useful, with this particular technology into position, it would be simplicity itself to turn PRISMs focus toward People in America. Google denies granting the NSA unrestricted entry to exclusive data. Im unsure I could say this far more obviously: Were not in cahoots together with the NSA, mentioned David Drummond, Googles chief legitimate police officer, in the document on the Guardian. Regardless of whether you trust Edward Snowden, the NSA or Google, you will find good things about knowing precisely what Google gives many services a web email and internet browser, an internet search engine and worldwide menu, amongst other things. PRISM can supposedly acquire information and facts from these professional services as well as Google Drive, the companys cloud-storage foundation. Drive has two elements: Producing papers and keeping them around the Drive (Create), and importing your own personal documents (Upload). Googles online privacy policy weighs in at nine web pages, and states that Google can accumulate login, tool and location info. Google also gathers your browser past history, plants and cookies on the process and data the other applications youve been utilizing, in the event you entry Google Drive by way of Stainless. Googles Drive FAQs point out that the organization will not use any details of your tag as exclusive for advertising or advertising functions, nonetheless its terms of services tend to be much more freewheeling: Google can adjust, host, retail store, recreate and make use of create derivative performs interact, submit, openly execute, publicly screen and spread [customer] information. These permissions may appear terrifying, but theres actually an incredibly naive outline for every single one. So to keep you authorized-in on a cell phone or exclusive laptop or computer, Google needs to know your unit and logon info. Your physical location information and facts helps Google determine when someone has hacked your account in an unusual spot. How do people use Google Drive? Here are some examples of how people use Google Drive: 1. A harried item supervisor should proceed work towards a vital proposition within the weekend break. In past times, she could have dug about in the handbag to look for an old USB Drive she purposes of transporting documents. Or, she probably have emailed herself an attachment to open at home. Instead, she helps save the Word document and a Shine spreadsheet to Google Drive at her workplace. Later on that evening hours, in her home Computer, she starts her Google Drive folder to gain access to the Shine file. All of her helps save are updated to Google Drive. When she profits to operate the subsequent Monday, the up-to-date details might be considered in her work station. 2. The organizer of the family members’ reunion wishes to survey 34 relatives about attendance, accommodations personal preferences, and potluck meal preparation. He email messages everyone a link to web-based created Drive. The solutions are immediately transferred to Bedding, where he can view the reactions and the results. 3. An elementary university faculty makes use of Docs to team up on session plans. Every single teacher accesses the same papers from her or his houses or classrooms. Upgrades are quickly reflected, even if two teachers are all at once accessing the same record. Their principal is surprised by how quickly the faculty wraps up the plans, and the way properly the curriculums are incorporated. 4. At the identical institution, the fifth-level educators request their college students to distribute groundwork using Docs. The educators put remarks and modifications, in which the individuals can accessibility whenever you want via a Browser. It’s much more effective than emailing accessories close to, and the college students do not have to bug their parents to acquire pricey phrase-processing plans. What is the maximum upload limit of Google Drive and supported files? Documents: 1,024,000 characters, regardless of the number of pages or font size. Uploaded document files that are converted to the Google documents format can’t be larger than 2 MB. Spreadsheets: 400,000 cells, with a maximum of 256 columns per sheet. Uploaded spreadsheet files that are converted to the Google spreadsheets format can’t be larger than 20 MB, and need to be under 400,000 cells and 256 columns per sheet Presentations: Presentations created in Google Slides can be up to 50 MB — which is about 200 slides. Uploaded presentation files that are converted into the Google presentations format can also be up to 50 MB. Drawings: We’ve never seen anyone make a drawing that was too big (but that’s not a dare). Other files: Files that you upload but don’t convert to a Google Docs, Sheets, or Slides format can be up to 10 GB each. (Daily News Analysis, 2012) What is Google Drive’s storage plan pricing? People can store up to 15GB of data on their Google Drive account for free. If they need more space they can purchase it and the pricing is as follows: What are Google Drive’s compatible Operating Systems? Google drive is compatible with Windows, Mac, Android phones and tablets and Apple iOS. Conclusion Google Drive is a free of charge service that allows you to take your images, docs, and video clips anyplace and share them easily. There are tons of optimistic features which can be addressed to the application. The Google Drive buyer allows end users to decrease any data file right into a chosen directory which is then synced with Google drives Internet service and to every other of your users units and computer systems with the Google Drive’s customer. Customers may also upload data files manually through an internet browser. With these usages, it can be a substitute for World Wide Web (physical transportation of removable media), and also other standard sorts of submitting exchange, like File transfer protocol and e-mail attachments. While Google drive capabilities are as a storage service, its concentrate is on synchronization and revealing. It facilitates revision record, so data files deleted in the Google Drive directory might be healed from any of the synced computer systems. References Google unifies cloud storage across gmail, drive and google+. (2013, May 15). Kashmir Monitor. Gaylord, K., Kavanagh, M. (2006, 04). Search your hard drive in a snap: Google it! Inside the Internet, 13, 5-7. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/191096234 Nivio launches google drive app. (2012). Wireless News Maltais, M. (2012, Apr 25). Google adds to the cloud with drive. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1009108737 Google introduces google drive quick facts. (2012, Apr 24). RTTNews All you need to know about google drive. (2012, May 01). DNA : Daily News Analysis. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1010363648 Google drive updates app. (2013, Nov 08). Telegraph.Co.Uk. Kleinberg, S. (2012, Jun 11). Google drive: A lot to love, room for improvement. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1019609166 Google drive slashes prices on storage. (2014, Mar 13). University Wire. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1507019544

Joan Of Arc Essay -- Biography Biographies Maid of Orleans Essays

Joan of Arc Joan of Arc, first known as Jeanne d'Arc, was born in the village of Domremy, in the Champagne district of northeastern France. She was born on January 6, 1412 and died May 30,1431 at the age of 19. Joan is a French national heroin and a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. She rescued France from defeat during the "Hundred Years War" against England. In honor of her victory she is often called the Maid of Orleans. This is a story of her life. Joan was not a well-educated woman. She had never learned to read or write but was skilled in sewing and spinning. Her deeply religious mother and father, Isabelle and Jacques d'Arc raised her. Joan's father was a small peasant farmer, poor but not needy. Joan was the youngest of a family of five. She grew up herding cattle and sheep and helping in the fields during the harvest. Joan often referred to herself as Jeanne la Pucelle (Joan the Maid.) Joan, like most other children, spent much time praying to the statues of saints that stood around the church in her village. At the age of 13 in the summer of 1425, she began having religious visions and hearing what she believed were voices of saints. They started occuring once a week and as she got older they happened daily. She said the voices told her to always behave, obey her parents, pray, etc. She claimed they were the voices of St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret. She was said to be a Clair Voyant, a person who has knowledge of events happening far away or in the futures without using any of the five senses. The visions and voices never left her. Finally, four years later she was convinced that God had chosen her to help King Charles VII clear the English from French land. Joan set out to Vancoulers to ask the military commander Robert Baudricourt, for an escort to visit the king. The commander did not take her seriously at first and laughed. Eventually he gave her what she wanted. At the age of 17 in 1429 Joan left to fulfill her first mission or triumph. King Charles VII had been king for 7 years prior. His main enemies were the English and the Burgundians, who supported the English. Both parties controlled Paris and the northern part of France. His enemies did not accept the King. Charles had never been crowned because where kings were crowned was in enemy territory. Meanwhile the military situation of King Cha... ...sisted that her visions and voices came from God. Charles, whom Joan had helped crown, sent no one to rescue her. Months later Joan was sentenced to death by a French Clergy. She was burned at the stake before a large crowd in a marketplace of Rouen, France on May 30, 1431. Her courageous death had caused many to believe they had witnessed the martyrdom of a Saint. Martyrdom is the extreme suffering of a person because of heretics, or strong opinions. Joan did not receive a Christian Burial. Instead her ashes were thrown into the Seine River. In 1455 her family called for a new trial. In 1456, a mere 25 years later, Pope Calixtus III declared that Joan was innocent in the end. Almost 500 years later in 1909 Pope Pius X beatified her, or proclaimed her to exalt above all others. Which is a step towards canonization, or sainthood in the Roman Catholic Church. In 1920, almost 500 years after her death, the Catholic Church canonized Joan, or declared her to be a saint. Her feast day is celebrated the day of her death, May 30. Today many authors write about Joan of Arc. Patriots, people studying the super natural, supporters of women's rights, and many more admire her.

Moses VS Abraham Essay -- essays research papers

In the Old Testament, Abraham and Moses were two very prominent leaders chosen by God to do his will. Throughout Genesis and Exodus, both men play important roles in fulfilling God’s will. They are put to many tests, given covenants, and communicate constantly with God. Although they have many similarities such as being leaders and men of God, there are also many differences between the two. In terms of leadership, Abraham was a noble leader. Although he grew up in a camp where the notion of one God was not accepted, he eventually manages to become the leader of a tribe and make the people believe in his faith. He leads them around endlessly from Ur to Canaan, to Egypt, then back to Canaan. His tribe followed him around without much questions. They just followed his leadership. Moses was also a great leader. When he led the Hebrews out of Egypt to the Red Sea, some people questioned Moses saying, â€Å"It would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the desert† (Exodus14:12). Moses being a calm leader replied, â€Å"Do not be afraid. Stand firm and you will see the deliverance the Lord will bring you today. The Egyptians you see today you will never see again. The Lord will fight for you; you need only to be still† (Exodus 14:13-14). In the mist of his people doubting him and the Egyptians on the chase, Moses reassures his people to p ut their faith in God. This shows Moses courageous leadership in a time of eminent danger. After they cross the Red Sea, with the help of the Lord parting it, the Red Sea closes on the Egyptians and Moses and his people are safe. After all this, Moses and his people encounter many struggles such as thirst, hunger, attacks from enemies, however Moses always manages somehow to renew the faith of his people and lead them to the promise land. Just like Abraham, Moses was a worthy leader. They both managed to keep the faith of their people in God and they lead the people to the places they were destined to go. The only difference is that Moses faced more doubt from his people then Abraham did. Although they were similar leaders, they did have a different relationship with God. Abraham from the onset did not question God at all. Anything that God told him to do, it was done. For example, God asked Abraham, â€Å"Take your son, your only son, Isaac, whom you love, and go to the region of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt ... ...er the sea to divide the water so that the Israelites can go through the sea on dry ground† (Exodus 14:15). Unlike Abraham, who communicated to God solely through prayer, Moses communicated to God in a physical form and a direct way, in addition to prayer. In conclusion, both Abraham and Moses were great leaders of their people. Moses had the extra burden of freeing them first, however they both ended up convincing their people to put their faith in God and lead them properly. As far as their relationship with God goes, they both had undoubting faith in the end, but Moses had different relationship with God initially since he questioned himself. Abraham did everything God told him to without question, including almost having to sacrifice his son. They both ended up caring out their respective covenants, both dealing with the promise of a new land filled with glory. The last point is that they communicated a bit differently with God. Moses talked to God directly, in the form of a burning bush, and through prayer. Abraham only conversed with God through prayer. In short, both men of God had many similarities and differences, in various aspects of their lives and connection with God.

Reconstruction after the Civil War Essay

Black political activity during the Reconstruction after the Civil War came from the experience of after war slavery or what was called servitude. A strong sense of community grew out of shared racial oppression and contributed to the formation of a political stand for the black freedman. Even though this formation was important it really did not become very strong after the Civil War. Emancipation was confusing to most blacks and the wartime disorder didn’t help the uncertain situation. Freedmen moved very cautiously to explore what changes were happening in their lives. They were more interested in individual measures to enhance their freedom and avoided becoming politically active. One of the freedmen’s first desires was to leave anything having to do with slavery behind. They wanted to define their new status different than the slavery they had known. What many blacks did first after becoming free was to leave the plantation that had enslaved them. Some looked for family and other headed for towns and cities, but most wanted to leave. Autonomy was a key issue that arose out of emancipation. At first the freedmen hoped their needs would be met by the federal government. Inspired by wartime confiscation of planters land, and the promise of the Freedmen’s Bureau, the former slaves waited for their â€Å"forty acres and a mule†. The Freedmen’s Bureau was a temporary agency set up to aid the former slaves by providing relief, education, legal help, and assistance in gaining land or employment and came from the Reconstruction period. The problem of how to reconstruct the Union after the South’s military defeat was won of the most difficult challenges faced by American policymakers. The Constitution didn’t provide any guidelines. The farmers had not anticipated a division of the country into warring sections. Emancipation was a major force for the Northern war aims, but the problem became larger when questions arose on how far the federal government should go to secure freedom and civil rights for former slaves. The debate that followed led to a major political crisis. Advocates of a minimal Reconstruction policy favored quick restoration of the Union with no protection for the freed slaves beyond the prohibition of slavery. Proponents of a more radical policy wanted readmission of the southern states to be dependent on guarantees that loyal men would displace the Confederate higher ups in position of power and that blacks would gain some of the basic rights of American citizenship. The White House wanted the lesser approach and congress endorsed the more radical approach of Reconstruction (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson & Williams, 1987, p. 457). The tension between the President and Congress on how to reconstruct the Union began during the war. Lincoln never had a plan for bringing the states back together, but he did take some initiatives that indicated a more lenient and forgiving policy towards Southerners who gave up the struggle and denounced slavery. Lincoln issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in 1863 that offered a full pardon to all Southerners, except certain classes of Confederate leaders, who would take an oath of allegiance to the union and acknowledge the legality of emancipation (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 11). This policy was meant to shorten the war. The President hoped that granting pardon and political recognition to oath-taking minorities would weaken the southern cause by making it easy for disillusioned confederates to switch sides. But Congress was unhappy with the President’s reconstruction experiments and in 1864 refused to seat the Unionists elected to the House and Senate from Louisiana and Arkansas. A minority of congressional Republicans, who were strong anti-slavery radicals, wanted protection for black rights as a precondition for the readmission of the southern states. These Republican militants were upset because Lincoln had not insisted that the constitution creators provide for black suffrage. The dominate view in Congress was that the southern states had definitely forfeited their place in the Union and that it was up to Congress to decide when and how they would be readmitted. Congress passed a Reconstruction bill of its own in 1864. The Wade-Davis bill which required that fifty percent of the voters must take an oath of future loyalty before the restoration process could begin (Divine Breen, Fredrickson & Williams, 1987 p. 452). Those who would swear that they had never willingly supported the Confederacy could vote in an election for delegates to a constitutional convention. The bill did not require black suffrage, but it did give federal courts the power to enforce emancipation, but Lincoln used a pocket veto and refused to sign. Congress and the President remained stalled on the Reconstruction issue for the rest of the war. But during the last months in office Lincoln showed some desire to compromise. He showed much interest in getting the governments in Louisiana and Arkansas that he started, with the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in 1863, to gaining full recognition but Lincoln was warming up to the ideal of including black suffrage in all of this. Sadly Mr. Lincoln died before anyone knew the outcome of the struggle between congress and this man. Andrew Johnson’s attempt at reconstruction also put him on the defensive with Congress creating the most serious crisis in the history of relations between the executive and legislative branches of the federal government. During the war Johnson endorsed Lincoln’s emancipation policy and carried it into effect. He viewed it primarily as a means of destroying the power of the planter class rather than as recognition of black humanity (Divine Breen, Fredrickson & Williams, 1987). Johnson’s presidency was a huge surprise and really wasn’t suppose to happen considering that he was a southern Democrat and a fervent white supremacist. But the root of the problem was that he disagreed with the majority of Congress on what Reconstruction was supposed to accomplish. A believer of the Democratic states’ rights he wanted to restore the prewar feral system as quickly as possible, with the only changes being that states would no longer have the right to legalize slavery or to secede. Many Republican’s believed that if the old southern ruling class were to gain power they would devise a plan to subjugate blacks. Emancipation had removed the three-fifths clause of the constitution that counted slaves as only three-fifth of a person now they were to be counted in determining representation. Congress favored a Reconstruction policy that would give the federal government authority to limit the role of ex-confederates and provide protection for black citizenship (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 48). The disagreement between the President and Congress became irreconcilable in early 1866 when Johnson vetoed two bills that had passed with overwhelming Republican support (Fitzgerald, 1989, 81). The first was to extend the life of the Freedmen’s Bureau and the second was a civil rights bill meant to nullify the black codes and guarantee to the freedmen full and equal benefit of all laws and security of self and property as the white had. Johnson was successful at blocking the Freedmen’s bureau bill but later a modified version did pass. The Civil Rights Act won the two-thirds majority needed to override the president’s veto. The main fact was that recovery would not happen or even begin until a new labor system replaced slavery. It was widely assumed in both the North and South that southern prosperity would continue to depend on cotton and that the plantation was the most efficient way for producing the crop. But rebuilding the plantation economy was hindered by lack of capital, the belief of southern whites that blacks would work only if forced, and by the freedmen’s resistance to labor conditions that were still basically slavery (Divine, Breen, Fitzgerald & Williams, 1987). Blacks wanted to be small independent farmers rather than plantation laborers and they believed that the federal government would help them to attain their dreams. General Sherman, who had huge numbers of black fugitives follow his army on a famous march, issued an order in 1865 that set aside the islands and coastal areas of Georgia and South Carolina for only black occupancy on forty acre plots. The Freedmen’s Bureau was given control of hundreds of thousands of acres of abandoned or confiscated land and authorized to make forty acre grants to black settlers for a three year period. After that they would have the option to buy at low prices. Over forty thousand black farmers worked on three hundred thousand acres of land they thought were going to be theirs (Berlin, 1976, p. 141). But the dream of forty acres and a mule the government promised was not going to happen. President Johnson pardoned the owners of most of the land assigned to the ex-slaves by Sherman and the Freedmen’s Bureau and along with the failure of congress to propose an effective program of land confiscation and redistribution the land blacks could not gain title to the land they had been working. The ex-slaves even without land and in poverty still were reluctant to settle down and commit their selves to wage labor for their former masters. They were hoping for something better and some still expecting grants of land while others were just trying to increase their bargaining power. The most common form of agricultural employment in 1866 was contract labor. Under this system workers would commit themselves for a year in return for fixed wages that the bulk of would be paid after harvest. Many planters were inclined to make hard bargains, abuse their workers or cheat them at the end of the year. The Freedmen’s Bureau took the role of reviewing the contracts and enforcing them. Buy the bureau officials had differing notions of what it meant to protect blacks from exploitation. Some stood up strongly for the rights of the freedmen; others served as allies of the planters, rounding up available workers, coercing them to sign contracts for low wages, and keeping them in line (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 138). After 1867 the bureau’s influence was fading and a new arrangement come from direct negotiations between planters and freedmen. Unhappy with gang labor and constant white supervision, blacks demanded sharecropper’s status. This meant that they wanted the right to work a small piece of land independently in return for a fixed share of the crop produced on it and that was usually half. With the shortage of labor this gave the freedmen enough leverage to force this arrangement on those planters who were unwilling. But many landowners found it to their advantage because it did not require much capital and forced the tenants to share the risks of crop failure or a fall in cotton prices. Blacks at first viewed sharecropping as a step up from wage labor and a direction towards land ownership, but in reality it was just a new kind of slavery (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 140). Croppers had to live on credit until their cotton was sold, and planters or merchants seized the chance to give them at high prices and huge rates of interest. Creditors were entitled to deduct what was owned to them out of the tenant’s share of the crop and this left most sharecroppers with no net profit at the end of the year, some with debt that had to be worked off the next year (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 141). Blacks moving to cities and towns found themselves living in an increasingly segregated society. The Black Codes of 1865 attempted to require separation of the races in public places but most of the codes were set aside by federal authorities as violations of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, but that was defeated by private initiatives and community pressures. In some cities blacks successfully resisted forced separation on streetcars by appealing to the military during the brief period when it exercised authority or by organizing boycotts. But they found it almost impossible to gain admittance to most hotels, restaurants, and other privately owned establishments that catered to whites. When black supported Republican governments came to power in 1868, some of them passed civil rights acts requiring equal access to public facilities, but little efforts were made to enforce the legislation (Berlin, 1976, p. 249). Some forms of racial separation were not openly discriminatory and blacks accepted or even endorsed them. Freedmen who had belonged to white churches as slaves welcomed the chance to join all black denominations which gave freedom from white dominance and a more congenial style of worship. The first schools for ex-slaves were all black institutions established by the Freedmen’s Bureau and various northern missionary societies (Berlin, 1976, p. 285). Blacks had been denied any education at all after the war and blacks viewed separate schooling as an opportunity rather than as a form of discrimination. The Freedmen’s Bureau was a government agency that was to give assistance and protection to the Southern ex-slave after the Civil war. It gave assistance to the relief of the needy of both white and black. Its main job was to improve labor relations, administering justice and developing a black educational system. The Bureau influence though suffered in the North and was mortally damaged in the South by corruption, especially those that were connected with promising Republican control of the black vote. These excesses strengthened resistance to black suffrage and encouraged secret organizations like the Ku Klux Klan (Sehat, 2007). The bureau was established under the War Department and was suppose to exist for one year after the war. It was strengthened and its life extended in 1866 when Johnson attempted to veto. Its Director was a Christian general by the name of Oliver O. Howard and functioned through ten districts. Each had an assistant commissioner with the power to control all individuals that were refugees and freedmen. The Freedmen’s Bureau became the strongest single instrument of Reconstruction. Even though it was ended in 1869 its educational activities were extended to 1872 and its soldiers’ bounty payments till 1872 and had an expenditure of about $20,000,000 (Divine Breen Fredrickson & Williams, 1987). Reconstruction failed because it was inadequately motivated, conceived and enforced. But the causes of this failure remain in shadow. Some explain it in terms of an underlying racism that prevented white Republicans from identifying fully with the cause of the black equality. Others use the clash between the class interests of those in charge of implementing and managing Reconstruction and the poor people of the South who were supposed to benefit. But the basic issue raised by Reconstruction was how to achieve racial equality in America and that was not resolved during that era and is still in conflict even today. Reference: Berlin, I. (1976). Slaves without masters. New York: Vintage Books Divine, R. A. , Breen, T. H. , Fredrickson, G. M. and Williams, R. H. (1987). America past and present, 2nd. Ed. Illinois: Scott , Foresman and Company. Fitzgerald, M. W. (1989). The union league movement in the deep south. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. Gibson, G. J. (1957). Lincoln’s League: The league movement during the Civil War. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Illinois. Sehat, D. ( 2007, May). The civilizing mission of Booker T. Washington. Journal of Southern History, 73(2), 323-362.